From childhood to university, economic inequality shapes life chances worldwide

Independent studies by the agencies paint a picture of widening disparities that begin in childhood and continue into higher education, despite decades of global progress in school and university enrolment.

An unequal report card

Examining the relationship between economic inequality and children’s wellbeing in 44 OECD and high-income countries, the UNICEF report found that rates of income inequality and child poverty remain stubbornly high in most countries.

Children growing up in wealthier but more unequal countries face worse physical health and poorer educational outcomes, the report warns. Across the countries surveyed, households in the top 20 per cent of earners bring home more than five times the income of those in the bottom 20 per cent.

“Inequality profoundly affects how children learn, what they eat, and how they feel about life,” said Bo Viktor Nylund, Director of UNICEF Innocenti centre.

The report also linked higher inequality to poorer health outcomes. Children in the most unequal countries are 1.7 times more likely to be overweight than those living in more equal societies – a trend associated with poorer diets and missed meals.

Poorer education prospects

Educational attainment also suffers. Children in the most unequal countries have a 65 per cent chance of leaving school without basic proficiency in reading and mathematics, compared with 40 per cent in the most equal countries.

Within countries, gaps between rich and poor students are equally stark. On average, 83 per cent of 15-year-olds from the wealthiest households achieve basic proficiency in maths and reading, compared with just 42 per cent among children from the poorest households.

UNICEF called on governments to strengthen social protection systems, invest in disadvantaged communities, improve school resources and provide nutritious school meals.

Expansion without equal opportunity

A separate UNESCO report examined global trends in higher education.

The study found that the number of students in higher education has more than doubled over the past two decades, rising from around 100 million in 2000 to 269 million in 2024.

Yet this expansion has not translated into equitable access, the agency warned.

While around 80 per cent of young people in Western Europe and North America are enrolled in higher education, participation drops sharply elsewhere – to 30 per cent in South and West Asia and just 9 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa.

Completing rates lagging

Completion rates have failed to keep pace with enrolment growth. The global graduation ratio rose only from 22 per cent in 2013 to 27 per cent in 2024.

“This new report shows increasing demand for higher education, which plays an irreplaceable role in building sustainable societies. Yet this expansion does not always translate into equitable opportunities, highlighting the need for innovative financing models to deliver quality, inclusive higher education,” said Khaled El-Enany, Director-General of UNESCO.

Shifting enrolment

Women now outnumber men in higher education globally, with 114 women enrolled for every 100 men, although they remain underrepresented at doctoral level and in senior academic leadership.

The report, which includes new data from 146 countries, also highlighted widening inequalities linked to cost and geography. Only one-third of countries legally guarantee tuition-free public higher education, while many institutions are under growing financial strain.

Government spending on higher education averages just 0.8 per cent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Increased international mobility

The number of students studying abroad has more than tripled over the past two decades, from 2.1 million in 2000 to nearly 7.3 million in 2023.

Yet international mobility benefits only 3 per cent of the global student population, with major regional disparities, the report notes.

Seven countries – the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, Canada, Russia and France – continue to host half of all international students.

Stronger cooperation needed

UNESCO said stronger international cooperation and innovative financing will be needed to make higher education more inclusive and sustainable as student numbers continue to grow.

The report also warned that rapidly rising enrolment is putting pressure on universities, underlining the need to maintain teaching quality and widen access for disadvantaged groups. 

Digital technologies and artificial intelligence are also reshaping teaching and learning, yet only one in five universities had a formal AI policy in 2025.

A lifelong inequality gap

Taken together, the two reports suggest that inequality creates disadvantages that accumulate over time – beginning in childhood and extending into adulthood.

Children who grow up in poverty are more likely to struggle at school, experience poorer health and face barriers to entering and completing higher education.

Both agencies warned that without stronger investment in education, health and social protection, economic divides risk becoming entrenched across generations.